All About English
Ask And You Shall RecieveAll About English
Ask And You Shall RecieveGrammar 001
Academic Writing
Instructions: To get started, click here and then on one of the Practice Topics on the left and read the introduction. Then click on the exercise links to do exercises.
Important: You should complete the Practice Topics activities before looking at the analysis of the sample essay.
Table of Contents:
TOPIC SENTENCES AND THEIR SUPPORT IN A PARAGRAPH
BUILDING A PARAGRAPH
INCORPORATING SOURCES WITHIN PARAGRAPHS
DIFFERENT TYPES OF PARAGRAPHS IN AN ESSAY
Introduction to Segmental Phonology: Consonant Table
The purpose of this page is to generate dynamic distinctive feature tables. It selects segments from the set of consonants currently found in the feature database based on three types of information: language specific phoneme sets, phonetic filters, and phonological filters. Use the three panels below to generate feature tables.
Introduction to Segmental Phonology: Consonant Table
The purpose of this page is to generate dynamic distinctive feature tables. It selects segments from the set of vowels currently found in the feature database based on three types of information: language specific phoneme sets, phonetic filters, and phonological filters. Use the three panels below to generate feature tables.
Introduction to Segmental Phonology: Vowel Table
زمان حال ساده
ساختار
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کاربرد
زمان حال ساده یکی از متداول‌ترین زمانها در زبان انگلیسی می‌باشد که برای مقاصد زیر مورد استفاده قرار می‌گیرد:1- برای بیان عملی که همیشه تکرار می‌شود، مانند یک عادت یا رسم:
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2- برای بیان حقیقتی که همیشه یا معمولاً درست است:
The earth orbits the sun.
I come from Iran.
Some animals migrate in winter. (بعضی از حیوانات در زمستان مهاجرت می‌کنند.)
3- برای بیان حقیقتی که برای مدتی (طولانی) دوام داشته باشد:She lives in a small cottage.
I work in a shop.
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نکاتی در مورد هجی (verb + s)
1- افعالی که به x, ch, sh, ss و o ختم می‌شوند، به جای es ، s می‌گیرند:
kisses, washes, watches, does, boxes
2- افعالی که به y ختم می‌شوند و قبل از آن حرف بی‌صدایی بیاید، y به ies تبدیل می‌شود:
try, tries hurry, hurries fly, flies
ولی آن دسته از افعالی که به y ختم می‌شوند و قبل از آن یک حرف صدادار وجود دارد، تنها یک s می‌گیرند:
plays, buys, enjoys
زمان حال استمراری
ساختار
coming doing going taking | 'm am | I |
're are | you we they | |
's is | he she it |
کاربرد
1- برای بیان عملی که هم‌اکنون جریان دارد:
She is watching the TV.
He is working at the moment.
2- برای بیان عملی یا موقعیتی که در حال حاضر در حال وقوع می‌باشد، اما الزاماً در همین زمان صحبت کردن در حال رخ دادن نیست:
I'm reading an exciting book.
He is learning Arabic.
(توجه داشته باشید که مثلاً در جمله اول، شخص گوینده ممکن است در همین لحظه مشغول مطالعه کتاب باشد و یا اینکه ممکن است منظورش این باشد که مدتی است مشغول مطالعه کتاب است ولی هنوز تمام نشده است.)
3- برای بیان قراری تعیین شده در آینده:
I am meeting him at the park.
4- برای بیان کار یا شرایطی موقتی:
I'm living in a small flat now, but I'm trying to find a better one.(در حال حاضر در یک آپارتمان کوچک زندگی می‌کنم، اما دارم سعی می‌کنم یک بهترش را پیدا کنم)
نکاتی در مورد هجی (افعال ing دار)
1- افعالی که به یک e ختم می‌شوند، آن e حذف می‌شود:
come, coming take, taking write, writing
ولی در مورد افعالی که به ee ختم می‌شوند، این قاعده صدق نمی‌کند:
agree, agreeing see, seeing
2- در افعال یک بخشی (یک هجایی) که دارای یک حرف صدادار و یک حرف بی‌صدا می‌باشند، حرف بی‌صدای آخر تکرار می‌شود:
running, stopping, getting
ولی چنانچه حرف بی‌صدای آخر y یا w باشد، تکرار نمی‌شود:
showing, enjoying
تمرین های بیشتر برای این زمان و زمان حال ساده
زمان گذشته ساده
ساختار
(last week) (yesterday) | worked | I, we, you, he, she, ... |
played | ||
heard |
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کاربرد
گذشته ساده در موارد زیر کاربرد دارد:
1- برای بیان کاری که در گذشته و زمان مشخصی به پایان رسیده است:
We met last week.
He left yesterday.
2- برای بیان کارهایی که پشت سرهم در یک ماجرا یا داستان می‌آیند:
I walked into my room and sat down. Suddenly I heard a noise coming from outside. I got up and went towards the window...
3- برای بیان عادت یا شرایطی در گذشته:
When he was a child, they lived in a cottage in the jungle.
Every day he walked in the jungle to....
نکاتی در مورد هجی (verb + ed)
1- هنگامیکه فعلی به e ختم می‌شود، فقط d اضافه می‌کنیم:
loved, hated, used
2- افعال یک هجایی (یک بخشی) که به ترتیب شامل یک حرف صدادار و یک حرف بی‌صدا می‌باشند، حرف بی‌صدای آخر تکرار می‌شود:
stopped, planned, robbed
ولی اگر دو حرف صدادار وجود داشته باشد، حرف بی‌صدای آخر تکرار نمی‌شود:
looked, cooked, seated
اگر حرف بی‌صدای آخر y یا w باشد نیز تکرار نمی‌شود:
played, rowed, showed
منبع: www.zabanamoozan.com
Most grammar and style books and references speak of various ways in which the language is used. We hear of standard English and nonstandard English. We hear of formal or informal speech. What do these terms mean, and how can they help us. (Note: sometimes the words standard and nonstandard are capitalized when used in this context. Whichever way you choose, be consistent.) Different languages and cultures will look to various authorities to set standards for their language. In some cases there are none. Let me use a few illustrations from other lands and languages. Standard English Standard English comes from two main sources--editors, both of books and periodicals, and the schools. This means that there is not always uniformity. However, anyone who reads English frequently can begin to see there are certain standards, and that written English is not quite the same as everyday spoken English. Indeed, people often speak of standard English as standard written English, or SWE. The standards are in place for one very simple reason--to communicate effectively with as wide of an audience as possible. Nonstandard refers to terms or practices which are not recognized as standard English. In most cases, there are one of several reasons for something being nonstandard. There could be a problem in logic which makes for confusion or ambiguity. Dangling modifiers or incorrect subject-verb agreement are examples from everyday speech which are nonstandard for this reason. In some cases, the expression is simply not commonly used or understood. Jargon and slang often fall into this category. In some cases, the language is considered rude, offensive, or impolite. Oaths and profanity would be examples of this. Dialect would also be considered nonstandard. Writers sometimes use dialect to illustrate the speech of a particular region, but to write a whole work in a dialect would be confusing to those unfamiliar with the dialect. Style and Other Considerations Rules for Prepositions in, on, at, to by Rick Shur
Where Does This Come From?
In China, the standard pronunciation for Mandarin Chinese is the dialect of the Xi'an region. This was an early capital of the China, and so most Chinese see it as closest to the origin of the language.
France established the French Academy to rule on what is proper in the French language. The Academy sets the standards, and the French textbooks follow them. Since the 1960's when most French colonies became independent, the French Academy has included members from former colonies so that the standards are applied as widely as possible.
Greece has many distinctive local dialects. When Greece became independent after nearly five hundred years of Turkish rule, the government adopted katharevousa, or "purified" Greek. It was an artificial language based on the Greek roots meant to be widely understood. In the last hundred and fifty years, however, the katharevousa has become identified more with certain elites rather than with the Greek nation. Its use became a political issue, and in many places it is ignored or resented.
English has nothing like any of this--no principle of origin, no authority, no government-ordained pure language. It is spoken in many countries. Even in England today there are many dialects. There is no academic or governmental authority to rule on what good English is or is not. Still, since the advent of the printing press, English speaking people have developed standards.
Indeed, in most cases where writers did not use standard English, they were consciously writing for a more narrow audience. We see this with the Scots' poetry of Roberts Burns, for example. He also wrote many poems in standard English, but some he wrote in the Scots' dialect specifically for a Scottish audience or to evoke a certain atmosphere.
Most grammar texts, style sheets, and writing guides use standard English. Some specific details may vary slightly, but the purpose is for clarity and communication, and they are largely uniform.
Sometimes standard English is further divided into formal and informal English. This is mostly a matter of setting and tone. Formal English is used in most literate writing and most business communications. Clarity and precision are important. Formal English does not have to be pompous or complicated, but it is precise and clear.
Informal English is still grammatically correct, but it may use certain words or techniques that would be avoided in formal speech or writing. A good example is the use of verb contractions. There is nothing incorrect about verb contractions. They are a reflection of the way most English speakers talk. In informal writing--a personal note or memo, for example--they are fine. However, in any kind of formal writing, the words are spelled out.
Informal: He doesn't know what happened yesterday.
Formal: He does not know what happened yesterday.
Informal English is more casual. It is appropriate when you need a less formal or more personal tone. Informal language is sometimes called colloquial.
Nonstandard English
The novel Jane Eyre has an example of Yorkshire dialect when a person in the book says, "You are all redd up and made decent." Redd up is a term that many English speakers are unfamiliar with, but if you were from Yorkshire, England, or Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA, you probably would have heard or used the term. It is accepted; it is not slang or jargon; but neither is it standard.
Usually when authorities disagree over usage, the question is one of formal vs. informal. There are very few uses which some would consider standard and some nonstandard.
A lot of what is considered standard writing is a question of style. For example, the PSAT, an American college entrance examination, contains a Test of Standard Written English. While some of the questions are about grammar, most are about style. Which way of saying something sounds more precise, more clear, more organized?
Why does the PSAT not test merely grammar? In all cases we are looking for the best way to communicate.
Basic Rules for Time
A. at a time
B. on a day
C. in a month (season, year, decade, century)
Basic Rules for Place
D. at an address
E. on a street
F. in an area (neighborhood, town, borough, state,
country, continent, ocean, world, universe)
Special Rules
1. look at and listen to
2. to with verbs of desire, necessity, expectation
love to, like to, hate to, want to, need to, have to,
hope
to, expect to
3. at night
in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening
4. on transportation
on the bus, on the train, on the subway, on a plane,
on a
jet, on a ship, on a bicycle, on a motorcycle, on a
surfboard, on a
skateboard
BUT
in a car, in a taxi, in a small boat, in an elevator,
in a
helicopter
5. at an intersection (where two streets cross)
at Broadway and 42nd Street, at Fifth Avenue and 34th Street
6. on an island, on a farm, on a college campus, on
earth, on a
planet
7. expressions that mean sometimes use different
prepositions:
from time to time, on occasion, once in a while
8. in a park, in a yard, at a playground
9. on anything flat
on a plate, on the wall, on the floor, on a shelf, on
the
blackboard,
on a table, on a desk, on the door, on the stove, on
your face
10. in a room or anything smaller
in the closet, in a drawer, in a cup, in a bowl, in a
glass,
in your mouth, ideas in your head (BUT a hat on your
head), a look in
your eye
11. to when moving from point A to point B
go to school, drive to work, take a trip to Boston,
take
your kids to school, fly to London, walk to the
library, bring your dog
to the vet
12. on a/an [adjective] morning, afternoon, evening,
night, day
on a cold afternoon, on a sunny morning, on a rainy
evening,
on a Saturday night, on a spring day, on a special
night
13. on vacation, on the weekend, on a trip, on a
picnic, on your
break,
on a leave of absence, on your lunch hour
14. in the water swimming, on the water boating
15. at the beach, on the sand getting a suntan, in the
sand playing
16. on anything like a line
on the coast, stand on line, on the border, on the
side of
the room
17. on forms of communication
on TV, on the radio, on the phone, on the fax machine,
on
the computer, on a disk, on a CD, on a hard drive, on
a channel, on a
screen, a report on/about the economy, an article
on/about the election
campaign
18. on time, on time for something, in time to do
something (Come
on time. Come in time to get a seat.)
[ESLprof.com/ handouts/ Info/preprule. doc]
Writing Styles and Standards in English
